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Health Psychology 2009, Vol. 28, No. 4, 428 – 438 0 2009 American Psychological Association 0278-6133/09/$12. 00 DOI: 10. 1037/a0014522 parent—Chlld Attitude Congruence on Type and Intensity of Physical Activity: Testing Multiple Mediators of Sedentary Behavior in Older Children Cheryl B. Anderson and Sheryl O. Hughes Baylor College of Medicine Bernard F. Fuemmeler Duke University Medi orao Objective: This study ar:m.. • Sv. ipeto iee. of specific types and explain gender differ attitudes on value livity, which may d evaluated physical activity as a mechanism to reduce time spent in sedentary ehaviors. Design: A community sample of 681 parents and 433 children (mean age 9. 9 years) reported attitudes on importance of vigorous and moderate intensity team and individually performed sports/activities, as well as household chores. Separate structural models (LISREL 8. ) for girls and boys tested whether parental attitudes were related to Child TV and computer via Child attitudes, sport team participation, and physical activity, controlling for demographic factors. Main Outcome Measures: Child 7-day physical activity, sport teams, weekly TV, computer. Results: Parent- Child attitude congruence was ore prevalent among boys, and attitudes varied by ethnicity, parent education, and number of children.

Positive parent- Child attitudes for vigorous team sports were related to increased team participation and physical activity, as well as reduced TV a and computer in boys and girls. Value of moderate intensity household chores, such as cleaning house and doing laundry, was related to decreased team participation and increased in boys. Only organized team sports, not general physical activity, was related to reduced TV and computer. Conclusion: Results support parents’ role in socializing children’s achievement task values, ffecting Child activity by transferring specific attitudes.

Value of vigorous intensity sports provided the most benefits to activity and reduction of sedentary behavior, while valuing household chores had unexpected negative effects. Keywords: parental influence, gender, motivation, activity displacement, task value population-wide declines in physical activity and the stability of sedentary behavior patterns begun in adolescence, or even earlier in childhood, have been identified as behavioral factors in the rise of obesity among children and adolescents over the past two decades (Gordon-Larsen, Nelson, & Popkin, 2004).

Physicians and health professionals have been urged to encourage parents to increase children’s physical activity and limit sedentary activities, such as TV viewing, as target behaviors in the effort of obesity prevention (Barlow, 2007), however, the relationship between physical activity and sedentary behawor remains unclear (Marshall, Biddle, Gorely, Cameron, & Murdey, 2004). Moreover, the mechanisms by which these relationships operate and are estab- lished in youth remain unknown.

It is unclear if physical activity may act as a protective mechanism to reduce sedentary behavior, What types of physical PAGF hysical activity may act as a protective mechanism to reduce sedentary behavior, What types of physical activity might lead to such decreases, houv parental and Child attitudes may be involved, and whether ethnicity and other demographic vanables may impact these mediating processes.

Understanding the mediating mechanisms of behaviors has become an important focus of research on obesity prevention to provide critical information that can be used to design more effective interventions (Baranowski, Anderson, & Carmack, 1998). Process Models of Parent Socialization Parents act as gatekeepers of behavior, especially in young hildren, but even more importantly, parents indirectly affect Child behavior by influencing the attitudes and cognitions that children develop (Eccles et al. , 1983; Mead, 1934).

Some theories related to children’s achievement motivation and behavior have specifically emphasized parental influence and understanding the processes through which parents promote and sustain children’s participation in activities, both in and out of school. Eccles et al. ‘s expectancyvalue model of achievement motivation (Eccles et al. , 1983), which guided the current study, has been the most influential framework in describing the relations between parents’ eliefs and behaviors regarding specific activities, Child beliefs, and children’s activity choices and performance.

In this model, the two most important predictors of choice behaviors are an individual’s expectations for success, which stem from one’s self- concept of 428 Cheryl B. Anderson and Sheryl O. Hughes, Baylor College of Medicine, self-concept of Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Children’s Nutrition Research Center; Bernard F. Fuemmeler, Duke University Medical Center, Department of Community & Family Medicine. This study was funded by the National Cancer Institute (R03-CAg01 85).

The preparation of this article was supported in part by federal funds from the National Cancer Institute (ROI-CA98662) and the USDAJARS under cooperative Agreement NO. 6250-51 0004)47. The contents of this publication do not necessarily reflect the views or policies ofthe I_JSDA nor does mention of trade names, commercial products, or organizations imp[y endorsement by the LJ. S. Government. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Cheryl B. Anderson, Baylor College of Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Children’s Nutrition Research Center, 1100 Bates, Houston, TX 77030.

E-mail: cheryla@bcm. tmc. edu PARENTAL ATTITUDES AND CHILD ACTIVITY 429 ability (i. e. , competence), and subjective task value. Parents are posited to influence Child behavior through their effects on Child perceptions of ability and task value beliefs. Empirical studies have supported the model in multiple ages of children across a variety of domains, including academic subjects, out-of-school activities, and sports (Eccles & Harold, 1 991; Fredericks & Eccles, 2005; Simpkins, Davis-Kean, & Eccles, 2005).

Although expectancy- value theorists have long argued that people are likely to do tasks hey highly value and avoid tasks that they consider are of ittle value (Atkinson, 1957; Eccl value and avoid tasks that they consider are aflittle value (Atkinson, 1957; Eccles et al. , 1983; Feather, 1982), it has been the empirical work of Eccles and colleagues that has made the most substantial contribution to the measurement of achievement task value, its relation to task choice among children, and how parental influence may affect the Child value-behavior relationship (Wigfield & Eccles, 1992).

Research is still quite limited, however, on parent— Child attitude transfer on the value of particular ehaviors in the area of physical activity and how this relates to Child behavior. There is evidence to support a relation between Child participation in organized and free-time physical activity and parental beliefs on the importance of general physical activity for their chlld (Heitzler, Martin, Duke, & Huhman, 2006). Positive correlations have also been found between parents’ value of general sports for their Child and children’s value beliefs of sports (r . 2 . 35), and in turn, Child value beliefs of sports and participation in sports (organized or with neighborhood friends, r . 42 . 53) (Fredericks & Eccles, 2005). However, no previous studies have explored the direct transfer of task value between parent and Child regarding specific types and intensities of physical activities and the extent to which such children’s beliefs mediate the relation between parental beliefs and Child behavlor. The current study seeks to fill this gap by testing such mediating relationships. hysical activity, as well as TV (gagley, Salmon, & Crawford, 2006; Sallis, Prochaska, & Taylor, 2000), there have been n PAGF s OF W (Bagley, Salmon, & Crawford, 2006; Sallis, Prochaska, & Taylor, 2000), there have been no studies that have addressed how hese key demographic factors may impact parental attitudes on the value of specific types and intensities of physical activity in concert with Child physical activity and sedentary behavior.

The current study attempted to better understand the role of these demographic factors by testing their relationships with parent value ratings in attitude-behavior models. Physical Activity and Sedentary Behavior Time spent in sedentary behavior, such as TV viewing, has been associated with obesity in adults (Hu, Li, Colditz, Willett, & Manson, 2003) and more recently in chlldren (Danner, 2008; Deiva, J0hnston, & P’Malley, 2007; O’Brien et al. , 2008).

Children who have watched more TV have also been less physically active in many studies, and it has been widely hypothesized that TV displaces other leisure activities (Mutz, Roberts, & van Vuuren, 1993), such as physical activity, as a possible effect mechanism for obesity. Much controversy, however, surrounds the relationship between physical activity and media use in children and adolescents. Previous reviews of correlates of physical activity among youth have found TV viewing generally unrelated to activity levels or there have been inconsistent resu ts (Sallis t al. 2000). A recent meta-analysis of 39 independent samples of crosssectional data from children and youth (Marshall et al. , 2004) concluded that the relationship between physical activity and n. ” was quite small (corrected effect size, r . 13), as was the relationship between p PAGF 6 activity and W was quite small (corrected effect size, r . 13), as was the relationship between physical activity and videol computer game use (corrected effect size, r . 14, based on 10 samples). Moderator analyses from Marshal et al. uggested that the physical activity-TV relationship may differ by physical ctivity intensity (larger inverse relationships were found for vigorous), but more research is needed to better understand if and how types and intensities of physical activity may be related to TV watching or computer use. The current study addressed this gap by testing moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) and organized team sport participation as mediators of attitudes on types and intensities of activities and TV watching, as well as computer use.

The methodology’ of structural equatlon modeling used allows a more effective and comprehensive test of displacement mechanisms, which has been lacking in previous nvestigations. Influence of Child Gender and Other Demographic Factors on Parental Beliefs Despite the fact that parents’ gender-biased views in areas of achievement among children are well established (Eccles, Freedman-Doan, Frome, Jacobs, & Yoon, 2000; Frome & Eccles, 1998), previous studies have not explored how the transfer of specific beliefs related to type and intensity of physical activity may differentially impact activity and sedentary behavior in girls and boys.

Understanding the origins of gender differences may help explain the Iower leveis of physical activity among girls, as ell as important gender differences in sedentary behavior (Jago, Anderson, Baranowski, & W PAGF 7 girls, as well as important gender differences in sedentary behavior Oago, Anderson, Baranowski, & Watson, 2005). We also need to know much more about how culture or ethnic origin influences parents as socializers of children’s task perceptions.

Few studies have examined ethnic differences in achievement values in relation to motivation among children and adolescents. There has been some research on achievement values among African-American youth related to school and academic achievement (Graham, Taylor, & Hudley, 1998), but information s lacking on other ethnic groups, on specific task values, such as those related to physical activity, and on how cultural differences in parental attitudes may shape domain-specific motivation and behawor in children.

Similarly, although parent ethnicity, socioeconomic status, Body Mass Index (BMI), and family structure (e. g. , number of children in the family) have been related to Child Present Research The current study examined the process in which parental beliefs about specific types and intensities of physical activity may influence children’s activity and sedentary behavior.

We focused n the intergenerational transmission of actlvity value and tested a model that posited that parental beliefs on activity value have indirect effects on Child behavior through concordant Child beliefs. Our study sample is representative of middle to late childhood when children are still highly influenced by parents, and there are major cognitive advances that facilitate their ability to report their attitudes and behavior (Harter, 1999). Using structural equation modelin to report their attitudes and behavior (Harter, 1999).

Using structural equation modeling to test the distinct contributions of ultiple mediators, it was hypothesized that placing high value on the six physical activities specified, especially vgorous activities, would be positively related to leisure-time physical activity and participation in 430 ANDERSON, HUGHES, AND FUEMMELER organized team sports, which in turn, would be inversely related to chlld TV watching and computer use. Our study is among the first to examine the notion that parents transfer attitudes not only on the types of physical activities that children should perform, but also on the intensity leve’ of these activities.

Examining parent- Child congruence on the type and intensity of ctivities, including household chores, and relationships to activity and sedentary behavior, controlling for relevant demographic factors, have not been explored. ticket and parents were mailed a gift card (SIO for one parent, $25 for both parents). Measures Child physical activity. Children completed the Physical Activity Questionnaire for Older Children (PAQ-C) (Crocker, Bailey, Faulkner, Kowalski, & McGrath, 1997; Kowalski, Crocker, & Faulkner, 1997) for moderate to vigorous physical activity during the previous 7 days.

Nine items (each scored on 1-5 scale) are averaged to yield an overall physical activity score ranging from to 5, resulting in a more normal distribution of physical activity scores than is found among most measures. The PAQ-C is one of few questionnaires specifically designed and validated for use in children in Grad PAQ-C is one of few questionnaires specifically designed and validated for use in children in Grades 4 to 8. One-week test- retest reliability has ranged from . 75 to . 2 (Crocker et al. , 1997), and Cronbach alphas have ranged from . 72 to . 76 in children 11 years old (Janz, Lutuchy, Wenthe, & evy, 2008). It has been related to Seven-Day Recall (r ,46), the Caltrac accelerometer (r 39), and a step test of fitness (r . 8) (Kowalski et al. , 1997). In our own validity assessment (n 58 children), associations with the MTI accelerometer worn 4 days (Thursday Sunday) were r . 45 for MVPA, . 12 for light activity, and . 45 for inactive minutes during waking hours.

Students also indicated the number of organized competitive teams they participated on over the past year, in- or outside of school. Child sedentary behavior. TV watching and computer use were based on an item from the adolescent version of the Modifiable Activity Questionnaire (Aaron et al. , 1995). Students were asked, “In a typical week, I watch TV in my ree time ” and “In a typical week, I play TV/computer games or am on the computer Internet for fun ” with the 5-point response scale for each question of “never,” “almost never,” “sometimes,” “often,” and “almost all of my time. A similar measure ofTV in 9 to 11 year-old children (Economos et al. , 2008) found to 100% agreement on test-retest over 2 hours. In our own substudy (n 58 children) alpha reliability for the W and computer items was . 73. The association of the TV item with self- reported 30-min blocks ofTV from the PDPAR diary (Anderson, Hagstromer, & Yngve, ” 2005) over 4 days (Thur